DNA: the mystery of human origins. What is DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid How is DNA analysis done

Nowadays DNA analysis is already becoming a routine and publicly available method of research, and after all, just a few decades ago, this kind of research seemed like a fantasy. It is known that in DNA all information about a person, and it is transmitted through only four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T). The sequence of these four letters encodes all existing genes, thanks to which proteins are synthesized in the human body. V DNA recorded when, how much and what kind of proteins will be produced in our body. Therefore, according to DNA analysis you can determine almost all information about a person, starting with external data, predisposition to various diseases and ending with character traits and origin.

And opened the structure DNA scientists Francis Creek and James Watson February 28, 1953. Exactly 50 years after this discovery, in 2003, the project was completed "Human Genome", thanks to which it was possible to decipher information about the location of all the genes that determine our development and life.

Currently using DNA analysis is only gaining momentum, and not only in medicine, but also in criminology and jurisprudence. The most popular need for such a study is definition of paternity. Comparing the DNA of a child and his potential dad in the laboratory allows you to give an answer with almost 100% accuracy, and many laboratories offer such a test even at the stage of pregnancy.

So what can we learn from DNA analysis today?

• hereditary predisposition to specific diseases that have already occurred in the family;
• the general "genetic history" of a person who wants to know for sure what diseases he may have in the future;
• the cause of unclear symptoms in the absence of the possibility of making a diagnosis in a different way (especially important for children with a rare genetic pathology);
• individual intolerance to certain drugs;
• the degree of genetic relationship with the alleged family members;
• the likelihood of complications during pregnancy;
• a tendency to alcoholism or drug addiction (based on the identification of genes responsible for the synthesis of enzymes that can break down alcohol and other compounds);
• risks in the presence of serious physical exertion (important for professional athletes);
• possible causes of infertility, etc.

Thanks to DNA analysis, future parents can assess the likelihood of having a child with a hereditary pathology, and if the disease has already been detected in the baby, from the first months of his life, develop an optimal treatment plan that will avoid complications. Therefore, in the maternity hospital, all newborns are screened to identify the most common hereditary diseases.

One of the most popular analyzes in recent times is DNA test for sports predisposition- allows you to find out what kind of sports potential a person has. Such an analysis will help parents understand which section it is better to send the child to. Sports genetics allows you to reveal the features of the metabolism and body structure of a particular person.

PCR diagnostics.

PCR is a polymerase chain reaction. Analysis method PCR based on the discovery of a small fragment in the research material DNA the causative agent of the infection that the doctor suspects. The polymerase chain reaction itself is used to multiply the found fragment in order to unambiguously “see” these DNA fragments, by the end of the reaction there should be at least 10 to the twelfth degree of pieces.

Initially, the principle of the method PCR developed Carey Mullis in 1983 This discovery has become one of the most outstanding developments in the field of molecular biology over the past 20 years, and therefore Carrie Mullis already in 1993 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

Dozens of new developments and test systems enter the medical market every year PCR diagnostics designed to detect pathogens of infectious diseases.

What material is taken for analysis?

DNA genealogy, or what kind of blood flows in you really?

It is not uncommon to meet individuals who consider themselves "best", "indigenous", "blue blood", "chosen ones". Why do people exalt themselves or some nationalities over others? And what happens when people find out what kind of blood flows in them? If you haven't seen it yet, I recommend watching this video, which says that the borders of the nation are very blurred, and this is proved by DNA research.

This branch of genetics is called DNA genealogy, and it is engaged in the development of various hypotheses related to the emergence of the human race, its distribution, as well as the emergence of ethnic groups, peoples and nationalities. DNA genealogy, unlike classical genealogy, establishes links between individuals in a different way, separately studying each generation using the data obtained from the analyzes carried out. Each person has his own biological passport - this is a molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA genealogy methods make it possible to study the part of DNA that is passed from generation to generation through the male line, remaining unchanged. And it is impossible not to mention one more term that is in use among geneticists today - this is haplotype- a set of data on hereditary information. This includes a set of all genes received from both parents at the time of conception. Today haplotypes help to figure out which national group a person belongs to.

As we can see, in just some 50 - 60 years, the greatest breakthrough has been made in the study of the human genome. Science does not stand still, and perhaps someday we will find out what other secrets DNA hides in itself.

DNA underlies all life on Earth. Deoxyribonucleic acid ensures the storage, transmission and implementation of everything that is inherent in each of us at the genetic level. Dozens of scientists around the world devote their time to studying this unique molecule, constantly making amazing discoveries.

Some of them are included in our current Top 10 Amazing DNA Facts.

10. Each human cell contains 47 DNA molecules.

But if the DNA of all the cells of our body is “unwound”, then they will stretch for 16 billion kilometers. That is, about a distance from the Earth to Pluto and back, or 30 times from the Earth to the Sun, and then back.

9. The human genome is not the longest

Scientists study the genome not only of animals, but also of plants. Thus, the flowering plant Paris japonica from Japan is the owner longest genome- about 150 billion base pairs. That is about 50 times the length of the human genome.

8. Alien genes can be artificially introduced into the DNA chain

So in 2006, scientists bred piglets that emit a pleasant green glow. To do this, a gene for a protein borrowed from a jellyfish fluorescing with green light was “embedded” in the pig DNA chain. Moreover, not only the skin of the piglets glows, but also all the internal organs.

7 DNA proves Neanderthals and humans interbred

Tens of thousands of years ago, two branches of human development uniquely interbred and produced offspring. Scientists were told about this by a study of the DNA of skeletons found in Italy, whose age is 35-40 thousand years.

6. One person can have two sets of DNA

Some pregnancies begin with the development of twins, but gradually one of the embryos “absorbs” the other at a very early stage of development. The people born as a result sometimes turn out to be carriers of two different sets of DNA.

5. DNA is the best information carrier in the world

Scientists from Harvard managed to "crack" the DNA code and find out that one gram of it can store 700 terabytes of information. To store such a volume on media familiar to us, it would take 150 kg of hard drives.

4. DNA will revolutionize forensics

Already, experts are able to identify a person by the remnants of the so-called "DNA touch". These traces remain in the fingerprints that forensics find at the crime scene.

3. Viruses took part in the formation of the human genome

At least 8% of our genome is generated by various viruses. Their genetic code was built into the human one in the process of long millennia of evolution, becoming part of the normal DNA of each of us.

2 DNA Proved Vikings Discovered America

A DNA study of four Icelandic families has shown that their genetic code has traits that are characteristic of Native Americans. Consequently, the harsh Vikings brought their wives from the mainland, which was officially opened centuries later.

1. The DNA of Earth's Prominent People Is Stored in Space

In 2008, the Soyuz delivered to the ISS the “Disk of Immortality”, on which the genetic code of earthlings outstanding in a particular area was recorded. For example, the disk contains digitized DNA of physicist Stephen Hawking and Playboy model Joe Garcia. The "Disk of Immortality" is designed to help revive humanity in the event of an apocalypse.

The abbreviation cellular DNA is familiar to many from the school biology course, but few can easily answer what it is. Only a vague idea of ​​heredity and genetics remains in the memory immediately after graduation. Knowing what DNA is, what impact it has on our lives, can sometimes be very necessary.

DNA molecule

Biochemists distinguish three types of macromolecules: DNA, RNA, and proteins. Deoxyribonucleic acid is a biopolymer that is responsible for transmitting data on hereditary traits, characteristics and development of a species from generation to generation. Its monomer is a nucleotide. What are DNA molecules? It is the main component of chromosomes and contains the genetic code.

DNA structure

Previously, scientists imagined that the DNA structure model is periodic, where the same groups of nucleotides (combinations of phosphate and sugar molecules) are repeated. A certain combination of nucleotide sequence provides the ability to "encode" information. Thanks to research, it turned out that the structure of different organisms is different.

American scientists Alexander Rich, David Davis and Gary Felsenfeld are especially famous in studying the question of what DNA is. In 1957, they presented a description of a three-helix nucleic acid. After 28 years, the scientist Maxim Davidovich Frank-Kamenitsky demonstrated how deoxyribonucleic acid, which consists of two helices, is folded into an H-shaped form of 3 strands.

The structure of deoxyribonucleic acid is double-stranded. In it, nucleotides are connected in pairs to form long polynucleotide chains. These chains, by means of hydrogen bonds, make possible the formation of a double helix. The exception is viruses that have a single-stranded genome. There are linear DNA (some viruses, bacteria) and circular (mitochondria, chloroplasts).

Composition of DNA

Without knowing what DNA is made of, there would be no achievement in medicine. Each nucleotide consists of three parts: a pentose sugar residue, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphoric acid residue. Based on the characteristics of the compound, acids can be called deoxyribonucleic or ribonucleic. DNA contains a huge number of mononucleotides from two bases: cytosine and thymine. In addition, it contains pyrimidine derivatives, adenine and guanine.

There is a definition of DNA in biology - junk DNA. Its function is still unknown. An alternative version of the name is "non-coding", which is not true, because it contains coding proteins, transposons, but their purpose is also a mystery. One of the working hypotheses suggests that a certain amount of this macromolecule contributes to the structural stabilization of the genome in relation to mutations.

Where is

The location within the cell depends on the characteristics of the species. In unicellular DNA is located in the membrane. In other living beings, it is located in the nucleus, plastids and mitochondria. If we talk about human DNA, then it is called a chromosome. True, this is not entirely true, because chromosomes are a complex of chromatin and deoxyribonucleic acid.

Role in the cage

The main role of DNA in cells is the transmission of hereditary genes and the survival of future generations. Not only the external data of the future individual, but also its character and health depend on it. Deoxyribonucleic acid is in a supercoiled state, but for a quality life process it must be untwisted. Enzymes - topoisomerases and helicases help her with this.

Topoisomerases are nucleases, they are able to change the degree of twisting. Another of their functions is participation in transcription and replication (cell division). Helicases break hydrogen bonds between bases. There are ligase enzymes that “crosslink” broken bonds, and polymerases that are involved in the synthesis of new polynucleotide chains.

How DNA is deciphered

This abbreviation for biology is familiar. The full name of DNA is deoxyribonucleic acid. Not everyone can say this the first time, so DNA decoding is often omitted in speech. There is also the concept of RNA - ribonucleic acid, which consists of sequences of amino acids in proteins. They are directly linked, with RNA being the second most important macromolecule.

Human DNA

The human chromosomes within the nucleus are separated, making human DNA the most stable, complete information carrier. During genetic recombination, the helices are separated, sites are exchanged, and then the connection is restored. Due to DNA damage, new combinations and patterns are formed. The whole mechanism promotes natural selection. It is still unknown how long she is responsible for the transfer of the genome, and what is her metabolic evolution.

Who discovered

The first discovery of the structure of DNA is attributed to the English biologists James Watson and Francis Crick, who in 1953 revealed the structural features of the molecule. Found it in 1869, the Swiss physician Friedrich Miescher. He studied the chemical composition of animal cells with the help of leukocytes, which massively accumulate in purulent lesions.

Misher was studying ways to wash leukocytes, isolated proteins when he discovered that there was something else besides them. A flake sediment formed on the bottom of the dishes during processing. After examining these deposits under a microscope, the young doctor discovered the nuclei that remained after treatment with hydrochloric acid. It contained a compound that Friedrich called nuclein (from the Latin nucleus - nucleus).

From the school biology course, everyone knows that DNA is a “data bank” that stores information about all living things. It is DNA that makes it possible to transmit data on the development and functioning of living organisms during their reproduction. Deoxyribonucleic acid is the basis of all living things. It is thanks to this molecule that all organisms are able to maintain their population. What do you know about human DNA?

In 1869, the world learned about the existence of DNA: this discovery was made by Johann Friedrich Miescher. And almost 100 years later (1953), two prominent scientists made a sensational discovery: DNA consists of a double helix. These scientists were Francis Crick and James Watson. Since then, for more than 50 years, scientists around the world have been trying to uncover all the secrets of DNA.

Human DNA - a mystery solved:

- The DNA of all people on the planet is 99.9% identical, and only 0.1% unique. It is this 0.1% that determines who and what we are. Sometimes it happens that this value (0.1%) manifests itself in a very unexpected way: children are born that look not like their parents, but like the great-grandmother or great-grandfather of one of the parents, and sometimes even more distant ancestors appear.

– We are 30% salad and 50% banana! And this is true: the DNA of each of us, regardless of age, gender, skin color and other characteristics, is identical with the DNA of lettuce leaves and bananas by 30 and 50 percent, respectively.

– Erythrocytes (red blood cells) are the only cells that lack DNA.

– There are 80,000 genes in human DNA, and 200 of them are inherited from bacteria.

- Very rarely, people are born who have not 1, but 2 sets of DNA. Such people are called chimeras, in their bodies the organs have different DNA.

Humans only have 2 fewer chromosomes than chimpanzees.

The human genetic code has 2 meanings. It was previously thought that the value is 1, but the American scientist John Stamatoyannopoulos, together with his team, discovered the second value in 2013. Thanks to this discovery, Western medicine began to develop in the direction of studying the human genome, which in the future will allow "genetic" treatment.

- There is a "Disk of Immortality" in space, which contains the digitized DNA of some outstanding personalities.

“There are living organisms on our planet whose DNA, under the most favorable living conditions, could provide them with immortality. But man is not one of them.

And these are far from all the mysteries of a small molecule, without which life on Earth would be impossible.

A new look at DNA

DNA for most of us is a deep mystery. We hear this word, we seem to understand its meaning, but we don’t even imagine how complicated this thing is and why it is actually needed. So let's try to figure this out together. First, let's talk about what we were taught in school, and then about what we were not taught.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the main human program. From a chemical point of view, this is a very long polymer molecule, which has the form of two chains, spirally twisting around each other. Each strand is made up of repeating "building blocks" called nucleotides. Each nucleotide is made up of sugar (deoxyribose), phosphate group and actually nitrogen base. The bonds between nucleotides in a chain are formed by deoxyribose and a phosphate group. And nitrogenous bases provide a link between the two helical chains. That is actually the creation of living matter. Foundations are of four types. And it is their sequence that forms the genetic code.

The Human genetic code contains about three billion base pairs of DNA and about 23,000 genes (according to the latest estimates), which are responsible for all the signs and qualities inherent in us. This includes everything that we receive from nature, as well as what we inherit from parents and their parents. A gene is the unit of heredity of a living organism. It may contain information about eye color, how to create a kidney, and hereditary diseases such as Alzheimer's. So heredity is not only the qualities of parents, but also the general qualities of a person. We can say that the genes contain everything that is human in us, along with the unique features inherited from our parents. You may also have heard of RNA (ribonucleic acid). It is involved in the transcription process, which actually begins the production and management of proteins. DNA is the template on which RNA is created and the blueprint followed by the process.

Listen carefully: this tiny double helix molecule can only be seen with a very powerful electron microscope. But it consists of three billion parts! Can you imagine how small these parts are? In fact, we see only the form of DNA discovered by Watson and Crick in England in 1953 on the basis of X-ray data obtained by Rosalind Franklin.<…>

It took another 43 years before, in February 2001, scientists were able to draw the structure of the entire DNA molecule.<…>

Then the real work began, because the study of the structure showed only the general chemical structure of DNA. Imagine that these are letters in a giant book. Now scientists knew every letter, but had no idea what language it was! They needed to decipher the language in order to see the whole picture, understand the words in the book, and find the genes. It was then that they discovered that things were taking an unexpected turn. The best scientists and the most powerful computers in the country struggled to find the codes that they expected to see in the chemical structure of the human genome.

We think in three dimensions. There's nothing you can do about it. This is our reality, and we cannot hope that we will escape it. But often it prevents us from seeing the big picture. Science is now beginning to loudly declare that the Universe and everything in it are multidimensional. So sooner or later we will have to invent mathematics that can fit such a model, as well as discover new physical laws and learn to think more broadly. In the meantime, scientists are making very serious assumptions that the human genome is linear and that the entire human genetic structure is contained in three billion "letters" of DNA. But it's not.<…>

Against all logic, scientists could not find the codes, although they absolutely knew that they were there. They used the best modern computers capable of cracking codes in search of the symmetry that any language generates. And they found her. The find certainly blew them away, and at the same time gave them the greatest biological mystery of the century.

Of the entire chemical structure of the most complex Human genome, only 4% carry a code! Only protein-coding DNA contains a clear code for the production of genes, and its presence there was quite obvious. It's so three-dimensional that you could literally see the "start" and "stop" marks in the gene sequence! Like today's computer codes, chemistry adjusted to our expectations, but only a small part of the Human genome was involved in the production of the 23,000 genes of the human body. Everything else was there, as it were, "for nothing."

Let me give you an analogy for such disappointment. A flying saucer appears above us. She does amazing tricks - hovering in the air, defying gravity and behaving as we would expect from a flying saucer. Then she lands. We approach and realize that there is no one inside. Apparently, this is just a robot probe sent to Earth. Suddenly, the top of the plate rises, inviting the best scientists to take a look at how it works. We are very excited, realizing that we are close to unraveling some mysteries. We are about to discover a new physics! We start looking for the engine, and a surprise awaits us: the engine compartment is filled to the brim with some kind of garbage! No, perhaps, it is more like foam granules, which we fill up as a filler in packages with dishes. These granules are clearly connected to each other, some of them even move, but they do nothing. No structure is visible in this material; it just fills the space. You dig up the "filler" with a shovel, throw out the pellets bucket after bucket, and finally find a tiny shiny object with some wires coming out of it. Obviously, this object is the engine, the heart of the ship. So Littel! Fits in the palm of your hand and controls everything! You are trying to run it. And then it turns out that without the "filler" the flying saucer does not want to fly. You put the pellets back in and the plate flies again! So, it turns out that the "filler" still does something? Or not? How can a filler do something? The error is understandable. We expected to see an engine - something shiny, wired, linear and complete in its structure - and we found it. What seemed to us "filler", "packaging", we immediately threw away. Do you understand what the oversight is and what the metaphor is?

There was an anecdote. DNA is made up of three billion parts, most of which do nothing! Only four tiny percent do all the work! What nonsense! We know that nature is very rational. We can observe the evolution of living beings even during one of our lives, and we understand how expedient nature is. If the fish are trapped in an underground cave, then after ten years or so, their eyes disappear. Nature strikes out everything that is not necessary, and we see it everywhere. However, 96% of our DNA is just junk! We, the pinnacle of evolution, are 96% garbage? This is contrary to everything that we observe in nature, but that's exactly what happened.. The parts of DNA that do not code for protein have been declared "garbage" by even the best minds. The non-protein-coding regions were random, had neither symmetry nor visible purpose, and appeared to be useless.

Meet the Non-3D Thinkers

Let's try to approach our flying saucer with new ideas. Perhaps this seemingly chaotic "filler" is not part of the engine at all. Maybe it's a map! After all, the ship must know where it's going. Then you think it's some other type of card. Maybe in a quantum state, a ship needs a quantum map? What could it be? That there must be something that would allow it to exist in a linear world, but could give instructions to a tiny shiny engine to control the ship in three dimensions. In this case, we know that the ship has multidimensional characteristics because it can control its mass. We also know from our quantum physics that when we move into a multidimensional world, time and space as we know them cease to exist. These two concepts are replaced by potentials and a completely non-linear and confusing profusion of "event rules" that make very little sense to us in the third dimension. Thus, the strange and chaotic "filler" is not disordered at all - it just looks so to three-dimensional creatures (you, me and scientists)! It must be exactly where it is in order for the engine to be able to move the ship. One could say that "filler" is an engine modifier and it should be present in significant amounts because it has so much to "tell" the engine about how to move in a multi-dimensional way.

For years we have put up with the term "junk DNA". However, suddenly we began to think differently. "What if,- someone said, - there is no code in the garbage, because it should not be there? What if this 96% of DNA somehow contains non-linear quantum rules that govern the encoded parts? This is a completely new and controversial concept - but at least it goes beyond the limited 3D logic!

Here is a report from UC San Diego on July 13, 2007, broadcast on CBS news:

The so-called "junk DNA" - 96% of the human genome, seemingly useless - may play a more important role than its name suggests, US scientists say. An international team of scientists has found that some of the "junk" DNA can serve as a framework to help properly organize the other 4%. “Some of the junk DNA can be considered punctuation marks, commas and periods, helping to understand the meaning of the encoded regions of the genome,” says co-author of this theory Victoria Lunyak, a researcher at KUD.

I think we're starting to see a multi-dimensional aspect of our biology that is obviously huge! What if 96% of our DNA is a set of instructions for the other 4%? Then this part is not chaotic at all, it just seems so to 3D thinking. Can punctuation marks appear to be letters of the alphabet? No. Then what is it? Are they symmetrical? Are they pronounced somehow? No. If you look at the punctuation marks in our language, it may seem that they are arranged in a random order. If you, for example, looked at this page without knowing anything about the language and its structure, then the punctuation marks would seem meaningless to you. They do not have symmetry. If you run this page through a supercomputer, it will eventually identify the words and their likely meanings, but not the punctuation marks.

Think about it. The engine we were looking for in a flying saucer was indeed there. This 4% portion encoding the protein serves as the "brilliant motor". And "garbage" is 96%, similar to granular filler. Now we suspect that something completely different is going on, and 96% may actually be a multi-dimensional constructor template, and 4% just an engine that obeys its design.

Doesn't this ratio seem interesting to you? According to the teachings of Kryon, only 8% of DNA is in the third dimension, and 92% of DNA controls the rest.

Perhaps we are witnessing a gradual recognition of the fact that the functions of DNA differ significantly from our expectations and that it is something more complex than just a code that can be read chemically.

excerpts from Kryon and Lee Carroll's "The Twelve Layers of DNA"