Political and socio-economic structure of ancient Russia. Political and social structure of Kievan Rus. The legal documents of Ancient Russia regulated the problem of inheritance. The family property was managed by the man, the head of the family. Right of Inheritance

09.12.2021Heading: masonry

The period of the centralized state (the beginning of the 10th century - 1132).

According to the legend set forth in the chronicle, approximately in the middle of the 9th century AD. Vikings come to Russia. Prince Rurik founded the state in Novgorod around 862. Varangian leaders Askold and Dir come to Kiev around this time. According to legend, they liberated the glades from the Khazar power and began to reign here. The chronicle describes the invitation of the Varangians to the princely throne - so that they would put things in order. But still it is considered a legend and nothing more. Then Oleg arrived in Kiev, who is considered the founder of the Kiev state (879 - 910/912). Also, according to legend, he killed Askold and Dir and took power into his own hands. Oleg annexed to Kiev the neighboring tribes of the Severians, Drevlyans, Ulichs and Tivertsy, as well as the northern Slavic tribes. He created a powerful Kievan state. In 907 he went to war against Byzantium. Two treaties in 907 and 911 testify to Oleg's victory: he forced Byzantium to pay tribute, and Russian merchants received significant trading rights. Oleg is a legendary figure and little is known about her. The year of death is also unknown.

Foundation of the Kievan state.

The next Kiev prince after Oleg was Igor(912 - 945), who founded the Rurik dynasty, He twice went on campaigns to the Caspian Sea and to Transcaucasia (913 - 943/944), trying to subjugate these lands. In the struggle for the Black Sea coast, he collided with Byzantium. The campaign against Constantinople in 941 ended unsuccessfully. In 944, Igor was forced to conclude an agreement with Byzantium on unequal rights. At this time, the discontent of the subordinate tribes begins, and in 945 Igor was killed while collecting tribute in the lands of the Drevlyans.
After the death of Igor, on behalf of the young son of Svyatoslav, Russia was ruled by a widow Olga(945 - 964). She brutally dealt with the Drevlyans and established new tribute standards. There is a point of view that Olga was a Slav. In 957, Olga traveled to Constantinople, where she converted to Christianity.

Son of Olga and Igor - Svyatoslav the Brave(964 -972) was famous for his militancy. He subjugated the Vyatichi and Finnish tribes between the Volga and the Oka (964 - 966), fought with the Volga Bulgarians, went on a campaign against the Khazars, destroying the main cities of the Khazar Khaganate - Sarkel, Itil and Samender. However, this opened the way to Ukraine for other nomadic peoples of Asia. Svyatoslav subjugated the Yases (Ossetians) and Kosogs (Circassians), expanding the borders of Russia to the Caucasus Mountains.
In 969, he came to the aid of Byzantium, defeating the Bulgarians. But then he started a war with Byzantium. The war ended unsuccessfully. When returning home, the Pechenegs attacked Svyatoslav's squad. The squad was defeated, and Svyatoslav himself was killed (spring 972).
Going on a campaign in Bulgaria, Svyatoslav divided power between his sons: Yaropolk received Kiev, Oleg - the Drevlyansk land, Vladimir - Novgorod. After the death of his father, Yaropolk, wanting to unite the lands, began a war with Oleg, and then with Vladimir. Vladimir hired the Varangians and defeated Yaropolk, becoming the sole ruler.

Vladimir 1 the Great(980 - 1015) united the lands, adding Polotsk, Przemysl, Cherven. In 983-985 he fought with the Yotvingian tribes and the Volga Bulgarians. To protect against the Pechenegs, he built fortified cities on the rivers Stugna, Trubezh, Sula. He appointed his sons as governors: Izyaslav - to Polotsk, Svyatopolk - to Turov, Yaroslav - to Novgorod, Sudislav - to Pskov, Stanislav - to Smolensk, Svyatoslav - to the Drevlyansk land, Mstislav - to Tmutarakan, Boris - to Rostov, Gleb - to Moore.
In 987, Vladimir assisted Byzantium in suppressing the revolt of Phocas. For this, the sister of the emperors Basil and Constantine, Anna, was promised to him as a wife, but they did not keep their promise. For this, Vladimir besieged and took Chersonese - a Byzantine colony. After that, the promise was kept. In 987 - 988, Vladimir adopted Christianity, and also christened the population of Russia (although paganism was strong for a long time).

After the death of Vladimir, seized power Svyatopolk(1015 - 1019). To take control of all the lands, he killed three brothers - Svyatoslav, Boris and Gleb. Yaroslav of Novgorod expelled Svyatopolk from Kiev in 1018, but he, with the help of the Polish king, captured the city back in the same year. However, the people did not support him, and in 1019 Svyatoslav fled to the West.

Yaroslav 1 Wise(1019 -1054) continued his father's policy. In 1036-1037 he finally defeated the Pechenegs. Under him, many beautiful buildings and temples were built in Kiev. He maintained close ties with Western European monarchs. His daughter Anna married the French king Henry 1. He was also engaged in education, organized a library.
Under him, the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery was founded. Yaroslav ordered to collect all legal acts in the collection Russian Truth, which regulated social and economic relations between different segments of the population. Under him, Slavic figures come to the fore in the administration of the state, and the Varangians gradually become only a military squad and nothing more.

At the end of his life, Yaroslav divided the Kev state between five sons: Izyaslav received Kiev, the Drevlyansk land with Turov, and Novgorod with Pskov; Svyatoslav- Chernihiv, Murom and Tmutarakan; Igor- Vladimir - Volynsky; Vsevolod- Pereyaslavl, Suzdal and Rostov; Vyacheslav- Smolensk. He ordered all his sons to obey the eldest son - Izyaslav, who was given the throne of Kiev.

After the death of Yaroslav Izyaslav 1(1054 - 1078) tried to expand his power to the lands of his brothers. He occupied Vladimir - Volynsky after the death of Igor (1060), as well as Polotsk (1067). After that, all the lands that were on the right bank of the Dnieper were under his rule. Initially, three brothers - Izyaslav, Svyatopolk and Vsevolod together ruled the state, fought against the Polovtsy. But after Izyaslav was defeated by the Polovtsians in 1068, the people of Kiev rebelled against him and he was forced to flee to Poland. The people of Kiev put his brother Vsevolod in his place. Izyaslav returned with the Polish troops, but in 1073 he was forced to flee again from the discontent of the people of Kiev.

In 1073 - 1076, the former prince of Chernigov ruled in Kiev Svyatoslav 2. The last Yaroslavovich on the throne of Kiev Vsevolod 1(1078 - 1093) united the main lands of the Kiev state: Kiev, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Smolensk and the lands of the Upper Volga region. He also fought landless princes who, with the help of the Cumans, tried to seize territories. He knew five languages and was married to a Byzantine princess.

His successor was Svyatopolk 2(1093 - 1113), son of Izyaslav. He had to fight all the time with the Polovtsy, who, led by the Khan Bonyak constantly attacked the Kievan lands. Svyatopolk helped Vladimir Monomakh, Prince of Pereyaslavl. He defeated the Polovtsians in 1105 and 1111.

After the death of Svyatopolk, Vladimir Monomakh was invited to the throne of Kiev. He ruled from 1113-1125. Vladimir Monomakh subjugated most of the former Kiev state, defeated the Polovtsy. He had extensive connections with Western European monarchs. Monomakh made new additions to Russian Pravda, and also left behind Teaching to children in which he advised how to govern the state.

After his death, his eldest son Mstislav 1(1125 - 1132) received Kiev, Smolensk and Novgorod, and other lands went to his brothers. He continued his father's policy, but after his death, the Kievan state finally disintegrated into separate parts.

From the 10th to the 13th century, the organization of the Kievan state changed radically. During the reign of Vladimir and Yaroslav, centralization takes place - the local administration is appointed in Kiev. However, then decentralization begins and local princes are no longer subordinate to the Kiev prince.

At first, all power was in the hands of the Kiev prince. He was the commander-in-chief of the troops, the political ruler and the supreme judge. The family of Rurikovich had such power. The princes relied on military force - the squad. Ideologically, the princely power was supported by the church. The prince ruled (executive power) and judged (judicial power) with the help of the governors appointed by him, among whom were mainly the sons of the prince, posadniks, governor. In addition to the central princely power, there was also a local organization, which consisted of thousanders, centurions and foremen. After that, the princely and local government changed.

The prince's combatants had a dual function: as an army and as his closest advisers. The warriors were with the prince, lived at his court. At first, the squad consisted of the Varangians, and then it became Slavic, which was associated with local life and population. Higher combatants were recruited from the best local people or from people who distinguished themselves during the war; they were called boyars.

The prince consulted with the boyar council, which consisted of senior warriors, as well as senior representatives of the local population and the clergy. The functions of this council depended on the personal will of the prince. During the tribal organization, an important body of power was the veche, at which important matters were decided. Under the first Rurikovich, their role declined. However, after the weakening of the centralized state, the veche again begins to play an important role. But, in Ukraine, it was not a permanent authority (as it was in Novgorod and Pskov).

During the princely period, there was a special social structure of society. On the top step stood the boyars, the best people. However, it was not a closed caste. The sons of priests and even smerds could pass into it. Most of the boyars were from among the princely combatants who settled on the land, or from among the local landowners. The boyars had some privileges, the law protected their property and life.

The population of the cities consisted of rich and poor sections of the population who were engaged in trade and crafts. Wealthy merchants almost did not differ from the boyars, the landed aristocracy. Wealthy local as well as foreign merchants were called - guests, middle-class merchants - merchants, and small shopkeepers, artisans - black. Many foreign merchants lived permanently in Kiev - Armenians, Jews, Greeks, Germans, Czechs, Poles and others.

Among the free people who belonged to the lower stratum of the population were stinks- the largest part of the rural population. They lived on their own land or on the land of the prince, paid taxes, performed various duties - built fortifications, bridges, roads, took part in the people's militia.

The next layer of the population was the layer purchases, people who took a loan - kupu and should have given it away. They were temporarily deprived of their liberty, but did not lose their civil rights.

The lowest category of the population were slaves - servants or serfs. In most cases, these were prisoners of war or the children of slaves. With the adoption of Christianity, their situation improved. The charter of Vladimir Monomakh also protected their lives.

The social structure of the Kievan state was characterized by the fact that all these layers were not closed. A serf could become a smerd or even a merchant, and a boyar could become a smerd for some crime.

The main place in the economy of Kievan Rus was occupied by agriculture. Its basis was arable agriculture. In comparison with the primitive communal system, farming techniques were significantly improved during this period. In the black earth south, they plowed mainly with a ralley or a plow with a pair of oxen teams, in the north and in wooded places - with a plow, which was harnessed to one horse. Agriculture played such an important role in the life of Ancient Russia that the sown fields were called life, and the main cereal for each locality was called zhito (from the verb "to live").

By IX-X centuries. the shifting system began to be used (when arable land was abandoned for a while). Two-field and three-field with spring and winter crops were already known. Slash-and-burn or slash-and-burn agriculture continued in the forest regions.

Peasant farms had horses, cows, sheep, pigs, goats, and poultry. Fishing, hunting, beekeeping (honey extraction) were of help.

At that time, subsistence farming dominated in Russia, in which almost everything necessary for life was produced in each household. Handicraft was of great importance in the economic life of Kievan Rus. The main centers of its concentration were the ancient Russian cities, but certain industries also developed in the villages.

The most important industry was ferrous metallurgy, which, together with agriculture, was the basis of the country's economic development. Iron was mined from swamp ores, which are rich in the territory of Ancient Russia. The processing of iron, the manufacture of numerous things from it for the economy, military affairs and everyday life were carried out in blacksmith workshops. Old Russian blacksmiths mastered many technological methods of iron processing: forging, welding, cementing, turning, inlaid with non-ferrous metals, polishing. The old Russian word "blacksmith" also meant a craftsman who worked with non-ferrous metals. "Blacksmiths of gold, silver and copper" have achieved exceptional craftsmanship in the manufacture of jewelry.

Glass-making, woodworking, pottery, and leather crafts have achieved great development. The so-called home crafts, which included spinning, weaving, processing of agricultural products, food preparation, etc., also had a significant distribution in Russia.

Old Russian state of the IX-X centuries. It is an early feudal monarchy. At the head of the state was the prince of Kiev, who was called the Grand Duke. He ruled with the help of a council of other princes and warriors (Boyar Duma). The squad was divided into the elder (boyars, men) and the younger (gridi, youths, children). The court, the collection of tribute and court fees were carried out by princely warriors, called swordsmen, virniks, emts, etc. With the help of the squad, the princes strengthened power over the population and expanded the territory of the Russian state.

The warriors received from the princes the right to income (in the form of tribute) from the population of the territories that were part of the Old Russian state. With the development of feudal relations, an increasing part of the combatants became landowners, who ran the household on their estates.

The cities were ruled by princely posadniks, and in the largest of them there were positions of a thousand and sot.

In the hands of the Kiev prince there were significant military forces necessary both to organize power over the population and to expand the borders of the state and protect it. These military forces consisted of the troops of vassal princes and boyars and of their own squad. In special cases, a larger popular militia gathered. The cavalry played an important role in the army, suitable both for distant campaigns and for fighting against the cavalry units of the southern nomads. It is known that during campaigns in the Balkans, Prince Svyatoslav gathered a 60,000-strong army.

In Ancient Russia there was a significant daily fleet operating on the rivers and on the Black Sea.

4) Transition to feudal fragmentation: causes and consequences.

The defining feature of the feudal system is the dominance of natural economy, when the economy is a set of closed economic units. In Russia, such a form of organization of production was the estates, functioning on the principle of self-sufficiency, the economic ties of which were limited to the nearest district. Everything necessary to meet the material needs of the inhabitants was produced in the estates, which led to the weakness of economic and economic ties between the estates and between individual principalities, as well as the irregularity of these ties. Another general pattern of the feudal economy is the process of concentration of land ownership in the hands of the ruling class, when an increasing part of the land resources became inherited, this led to the continuation of the seizure of communal lands by the feudal lords and, as a result, their desire to gain more local power. Tarkhan letters in Russia are a vivid example of such aspirations. In Kievan Rus, large feudal lords, in addition to beating the lands, enslaved communal smerds, increased dues and duties in order to personally receive fines (virs) from them and administer judgment over them. Therefore, in Kievan Rus contradictions between the big feudal lords and the central government (grand dukes - in Kiev) were ripening. From these contradictions, immunity letters are born, which express consent to the non-interference of the Grand Duke in the affairs of the patrimony. However, the great princes of Kiev continued to involve the boyars and their warriors in military campaigns, which did not coincide with the interests of large landowners. Hence the conflicts between the central government and the boyars, the latter's desire for separatism and the speedy obtaining of political and economic independence. The local boyars did not see the need to share their income with the great Kiev prince and actively supported the rulers of individual principalities in the struggle for economic and political independence. Cities also played their part in strengthening the centrifugal forces in Kievan Rus. In the XI-XII centuries. they are growing and strengthening, and the townspeople are showing interest in obtaining economic and political independence. In Russia, there were cities where the veche played a significant role, which expressed the idea of decentralization of the state and the independence of local authorities from Kiev. Such a reason as the weakening of the economic significance of the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks" also played a role. There was a shift of trade and transport routes to the Mediterranean Sea, the main role in the trade relations between Europe and Asia passed to the Italian cities - Venice and Genoa. Thus, Kiev lost the status of a major international trade center, which reduced the income from foreign trade and narrowed the financial base for supporting the centralized government, its administrative apparatus and troops. The process of advancing feudal fragmentation was objectively inevitable. He made it possible for the developing system of feudal relations to be more firmly established in Russia. From this point of view, one can speak of the historical progressivity of this stage of Russian history, within the framework of the development of the economy and culture. The growth of large-scale feudal landownership and the strengthening of serfdom led to an aggravation of class contradictions. Various economic reasons led to the transition of Russia to feudal fragmentation. The development of feudal land ownership led to the emergence of not only princely, but also private ownership, boyar villages. The basis of economic power now became not tribute, but the exploitation of dependent peasants within the estates. The process of “settlement” on the land of the previously mobile nobility forced the prince to be less dynamic, to strengthen his own principality. As a result, on the site of the former Kievan Rus in the middle of the XII century. a number of independent feudal principalities arose. The fragmentation of Kievan Rus was also facilitated by the growth of large cities, the strengthening of their economic and political influence. Cities such as Pskov and Novgorod became independent centers of new states - republics.

5) The main lands during the period of feudal fragmentation: features of their socio-economic and political development (Vladimir-Suzdal Rus, Galicia-Volyn principality, Novgorod-Pskov land).

Vladimir-Suzdal land Vladimir-Suzdal land occupied the interfluve of the Oka and Volga. The oldest inhabitants of this wooded region were Slavs and Finno-Ugric tribes, some of which were later assimilated by the Slavs. A favorable impact on the economic growth of this Zalessky land was exerted by the increased from the 11th century. colonization influx of the Slavic population, especially from the south of Russia under the influence of the Polovtsian threat. The most important occupation of the population of this part of Russia was agriculture, which was carried out on the fertile outcrops of black soil among the forests (the so-called opolya). Crafts and trade associated with the Volga route played a significant role in the life of the region. The most ancient cities of the principality were Rostov, Suzdal and Mur, from the middle of the XII century. Vladimir-on-Klyazma became the capital of the principality. The beginning of the establishment of the independence of the Rostov-Suzdal land took place during the reign of one of the younger sons of Vladimir Monomakh - Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky, who made Suzdal his capital. Pursuing an active policy in the interests of his principality, the prince sought to rely on the local boyars, urban and church circles. Under Yuri Dolgoruky, a number of new cities were founded, including Moscow for the first time under 1147. Owning the Rostov-Suzdal land, Yuri Dolgoruky constantly tried to seize the Kiev throne in his hands. At the end of his life, he managed to capture Kiev, but he did not enjoy the support of the local population. The eldest son of Yuri Dolgoruky Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky (1157-1174) was born and raised in the north and considered his native lands to be his main support. Having received control from Yuri Dolgoruky in the city of Vyshgorod (near Kiev), during the life of his father, Andrei Bogolyubsky left him and went to Rostov with his entourage. According to legend, along with him, a written by an unknown Byzantine master of the 12th century came to the Rostov-Suzdal land. the icon of the Mother of God, which later became one of the most revered icons of Russia ("Our Lady of Vladimir"). Having established himself on the throne after the death of his father, Andrei Bogolyubsky moved his capital from Rostov to Vladimir-on-Klyazma. He spared no expense to strengthen and decorate his capital. In an effort to keep Kiev under his control, Andrei Bogolyubsky preferred to be in Vladimir, from where he pursued an energetic policy to strengthen the strong princely power. A cruel and power-hungry politician, Andrei Bogolyubsky relied on the "junior squad" (service people), the urban population, especially the new capital of Vladimir, and partly on church circles. Steep and often autocratic actions of the prince caused discontent in the circle of large landowners-boyars. As a result of a conspiracy of the nobility and representatives of the prince's inner circle, a conspiracy arose, and in 1174 Andrei Yurievich was killed in his residence Bogolyubovo (near Vladimir). After the death of Andrei Bogolyubsky, as a result of civil strife, his younger brother, Vsevolod Yuryevich, finally secured the status of the main princely capital for Vladimir-on-Klyazma, on the throne. The reign of Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212) was the period of the highest political power of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Novgorod the Great was under the control of Vsevolod Yurievich, and the Muromo-Ryazan land was in constant dependence on the Vladimir prince. Vsevolod the Big Nest significantly influenced the state of affairs in the southern Russian lands and at the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th centuries. was the most powerful Russian prince. However, after the death of Vsevolod the Big Nest, a struggle for power broke out between his numerous sons, which was an expression of the development of the process of feudal fragmentation already within the Vladimir-Suzdal principality itself. Galicia-Volyn principality. The territory of the Galicia-Volyn land stretched from the Carpathians to Polissya, capturing the course of the rivers Dniester, Prut, Western and Southern Bug, Pripyat. The natural conditions of the principality favored the development of agriculture in the river valleys, in the foothills of the Carpathians - the extraction of salt and mining. An important place in the life of the region was played by trade with other countries, in which the cities of Galich, Przemysl, Vladimir-Volynsky were of great importance. An active role in the life of the principality was played by a strong local boyars, in a constant struggle with which the princely government tried to establish control over the state of affairs in their lands. The policy of the neighboring states of Poland and Hungary had a constant impact on the processes taking place in the Galicia-Volyn land, where both princes and representatives of boyar groups applied for help or in order to find asylum. The rise of the Galician principality began in the second half of the 12th century. under Prince Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152-1187). After the turmoil that began with his death, the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich managed to establish himself on the Galich throne, who in 1199 united the Galich land and most of the Volyn land as part of one principality. Leading a fierce struggle with the local boyars, Roman Mstislavich tried to subdue other lands of Southern Russia. After the death of Roman Mstislavich in 1205, his eldest son Daniel (1205-1264), who was then only four years old, became his heir. A long period of civil strife began, during which Poland and Hungary tried to divide Galicia and Volhynia among themselves. Only in 1238, shortly before the invasion of Batu, Daniil Romanovich managed to establish himself in Galich. After the conquest of Russia by the Mongol-Tatars, Daniil Romanovich became a vassal of the Golden Horde. However, the Galician prince, who possessed great diplomatic talents, skillfully used the contradictions between the Mongolian state and Western European countries. The Golden Horde was interested in preserving the Principality of Galicia as a barrier from the West. In turn, the Vatican hoped, with the assistance of Daniel Romanovich, to subjugate the Russian Church and for this promised support in the fight against the Golden Horde and even the royal title. In 1253 (according to other sources in 1255) Daniil Romanovich was crowned, but he did not accept Catholicism and did not receive real support from Rome to fight the Tatars. After the death of Daniel Romanovich, his successors could not resist the collapse of the Galicia-Volyn principality. By the middle of the XIV century. Volhynia was captured by Lithuania, and the Galician land - by Poland. Novgorod land. Novgorod land from the very beginning of the history of Russia played a special role in it. The most important feature of this land was that the traditional Slavic occupation of agriculture, with the exception of growing flax and hemp, did not give much income here. The main source of enrichment for the largest landowners of Novgorod - the boyars - was the profit from the sale of craft products - beekeeping, hunting for fur and sea animals. Along with the Slavs who lived here since ancient times, the population of the Novgorod land included representatives of the Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes. In the XI-XII centuries. Novgorodians mastered the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland and held in their hands the exit to the Baltic Sea, from the beginning of the XIII century. Novgorod border in the West went along the line of Lake Peipus and Pskov. Of great importance for Novgorod was the annexation of the vast territory of Pomerania from the Kola Peninsula to the Urals. Novgorod sea and forest industries brought enormous wealth. Novgorod's trade relations with its neighbors, especially with the countries of the Baltic basin, became stronger from the middle of the 12th century. Furs, walrus ivory, lard, flax, etc. were exported to the West from Novgorod. Cloth, weapons, metals, etc. were imported to Russia. But despite the size of the Novgorod land, it was distinguished by a low level of population density, relatively small compared to other Russian lands number of cities. All cities, except for the "younger brother" Pskov (separated from 1268), were noticeably inferior in terms of population and importance to the main city of the Russian medieval North - Lord Veliky Novgorod. The economic growth of Novgorod prepared the necessary conditions for its political separation into an independent feudal boyar republic in 1136. The princes in Novgorod were left with exclusively official functions. The princes acted in Novgorod as military leaders, their actions were under the constant control of the Novgorod authorities. The right of the princes to court was limited, their purchase of land in Novgorod was prohibited, and the income they received from the possessions determined for the service was strictly fixed. From the middle of the XII century. the Novgorod prince was formally considered the Grand Duke of Vladimir, but until the middle of the 15th century. he did not have the opportunity to really influence the state of affairs in Novgorod. The supreme governing body of Novgorod was the veche, the real power was concentrated in the hands of the Novgorod boyars. Three or four dozen Novgorod boyar families held in their hands more than half of the privately owned lands of the republic and, skillfully using the patriarchal-democratic traditions of the Novgorod antiquity to their advantage, did not let go of their control over the richest land of the Russian Middle Ages. From the environment and under the control of the boyars, the election to the posts of the posadnik (head of the city government) and the thousand (head of the militia) was carried out. Under boyar influence, the post of the head of the church, the archbishop, was replaced. The archbishop was in charge of the treasury of the republic, external relations of Novgorod, the right of court, etc. The city was divided into 3 (later 5) parts - "ends", whose trade and craft representatives, along with the boyars, took a significant part in the management of the Novgorod land. The socio-political history of Novgorod is characterized by private urban uprisings (1136, 1207, 1228-29, 1270). However, as a rule, these movements did not lead to fundamental changes in the structure of the republic. In most cases, social tension in Novgorod was skillfully used in their struggle for power by representatives of rival boyar groups, who dealt with their political opponents with the hands of the people. The historical isolation of Novgorod from other Russian lands had important political consequences. Novgorod was reluctant to participate in all-Russian affairs, in particular, the payment of tribute to the Mongols. The richest and largest land of the Russian Middle Ages, Novgorod, could not become a potential center for the unification of Russian lands. The boyar nobility ruling in the republic strove to protect the "old times", to prevent any changes in the existing correlation of political forces within the Novogorod society. Strengthening since the beginning of the XV century. in Novgorod, the tendency towards oligarchy, i.e. the usurpation of power exclusively by the boyars played a fatal role in the fate of the republic. In the context of increased from the middle of the XV century. Moscow’s offensive against Novgorod independence, a significant part of Novgorod society, including the agricultural and trading elite not belonging to the boyars, either went over to the side of Moscow, or took a position of passive non-intervention.

Formation of the Old Russian state - Kievan Rus

The state of Kievan Rus was created at the end of the 9th century.

In the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" (XII century) it is said that the Slavs paid tribute to the Varangians. Then they drove the Varangians across the sea. Rurik began to reign in Novgorod, Sineus on Beloozero, and Truvor - in the city of Izborsk. Two years later, Sineus and Truvor died, and all power passed to Rurik. Two of Rurik's squad - Askold and Dir went south and began to reign in Kiev. Rurik died in 879. His relative Oleg began to rule, because the son of Rurik - Igor was still a minor. After 3 years (in 882), Oleg and his retinue seize power in Kiev. Thus, under the rule of one prince, Kiev and Novgorod were united.

Norman theory. (Bayer, Miller, Schlozer, invited under Peter I). They made the assumption that the name of the Russian Empire was of Scandinavian origin, and that the state of Kievan Rus itself was created by the Vikings. "Rus" is translated from Old Swedish as the verb "to row", the Rus are rowers. Perhaps "Rus" is the name of the Varangian tribe, from which Rurik came. At first, the Varangians-druzhinniks were called Rus, and then this word gradually passed to the Slavs. German scientists decided that the Varangians are immigrants from the West, which means that the Germans created the state of Kievan Rus.

Anti-Norman theory. (18th century, with daughter Peter I - Elizabeth Petrovna) She did not like the statement German scientists that the Russian state-in was created by immigrants from the West. She asked Lomonosov to look into this matter. Lomonosov M.V. did not deny the existence of Rurik, but denied his Scandinavian origin. Anti-Norman theory intensified in the 30s of the XX century. When the Nazis came to power in Germany in 1933. Stalin gave the task of refuting the Norman theory. => To the south of Kiev, on the river Ros, the tribe of Ross (Rosses) lived. The Ros river flows into the Dnieper and it is from here that the name Rus comes. The anti-Norman theory tries to prove that the state of Kievan Rus was created by the Slavs themselves.

Socio-economic prerequisites for the emergence of the state-va:

A change in the tools of agricultural labor (a plow appeared) and an increase in the productivity of labor, the appearance of a surplus product.

Separation of cattle breeding from agriculture.

Separation of handicraft from agriculture.

Growth of cities and development of trade.

The emergence of private property.

The emergence of property and social. inequalities.

Political background:

Strengthening the power of elders, tribal leaders.

Formation of large unions of tribes.

The need for protection from external enemies - nomads.

Socio-economic and political system of Kievan Rus

Kievan Rus was an early feudal state. It existed from the end of the 9th to the beginning of the 12th century (about 250 years).

The head of state was the Grand Duke - the supreme commander, judge, legislator, recipient of tribute. Conducted foreign policy, declared war, made peace, appointed officials. His power was limited to:

Council under the prince: military nobility, city elders, clergy (since 988).

Veche - people's assembly: all free. Any questions were discussed.

Specific princes - local tribal nobility.

The first rulers of K.R.: Oleg (882-912), Igor (913-945), Olga - Igor's wife (945-964).

The unification of all East Slavic and part of the Finnish tribes.

Acquisition of overseas markets for Russian trade and protection of trade routes.

Protection of the borders of the Russian land.

The source of income for the prince and the squad is the tribute paid by the conquered tribes. Olga streamlined the collection of tribute and set its size.

The son of Igor and Olga, Prince Svyatoslav, made campaigns against the Danube Bulgaria and Byzantium, and also defeated the Khazar Khaganate.

Under the son of Svyatoslav - Vladimir the Holy in 988, Christianity was adopted in Russia.

Socio-economic structure:

Ch. branch of the economy - arable farming, cattle breeding. Add. industries: fishing, hunting. Russia was a country of cities (more than 300) - in the XII century.

Kievan Rus reached its peak under Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054). In 1036, he defeated the Pechenegs near Kiev and ensured the security of the eastern and southern borders of the state. In the Baltic states, he founded the city of Yuryev and established the position of Russia there. Under him, writing and literacy were distributed, schools were opened for the children of the boyars. Higher school - in the Kiev-Pechersk monastery. The largest library is in St. Sophia Cathedral. Under him, the first set of laws in Russia appeared - "Russian Truth", which was in force throughout the 11th-13th centuries.

Society in Kievan Rus was divided into

Free (nobility, warriors, clergy, merchants, artisans, free peasants)

Semi-free (purchases, ryadovichi)

Dependents (slaves: serfs and servants)

The main cell of the feud. the economy was a fiefdom. The votchina consisted of a princely or boyar estate and dependent communities-verveys. The patrimonial economy was inherited and had a natural character. At the head of the patrimonial administration was fireman.

3. Feudal fragmentation in Russia: its causes and consequences

Feudal fragmentation in Russia was from the beginning of the XII to the end of the XY centuries. (350 years).

Economic reasons:

1. Successes of agriculture

2. The growth of cities as centers of crafts and trade, as centers of individual territories. Craft development. More than 60 craft specialties.

3. Subsistence economy dominated.

Political reasons:

1. The desire to transfer wealth to the son. "Fatherland" - the legacy of the father.

2. As a result of the process of "settlement of the squad on the ground", the military elite turns into landowners-boyars (feudal lords) and strives for the expansion of feudal land ownership and for independence.

3. Immunities are formed. The Kiev prince transfers a number of rights to the vassals: the right to judge, the right to collect taxes.

4. Tribute turns into a feud. rent. Tribute - to the prince for protection, rent - to the owner of the land.

5. The feudal lords create a squad on the ground, their own apparatus of power.

6. There is an increase in the power of the department. feudal lords and they do not want to obey Kiev.

7. K ser. XII century. loses its value of the trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” -> “amber route”.

8. The principality of Kiev itself fell into decay due to the raids of the nomadic Polovtsians.

V. Monomakh (1113-1125) slowed down the process of disintegration of the country a little. He was the grandson of the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh. V. Monomakh became a prince at the age of 60. His son Mstislav the Great (1125-1132) managed to continue his father's policy and maintain what had been achieved. But immediately after his death, the division of Russia begins. At the beginning of the feud. fragmentation, there were 15 large and small principalities, and in the beginning. 19th century already was the peak of the feud. fragmentation - » 250 principalities. There were 3 centers: Vladimir-Suzdal kn-in, Galicia-Volyn kn-in and Novgorod feud. republic.

Mongol campaigns against Russia.

In Mongolia, there was an amalgamation of the Mongolian tribes into a single state. The head of state is Timuchin (Genghis Khan). It was early feudal. state-in., only Mongolian feudalism had features: it was nomadic. This is how a whole empire is formed, which is divided into uluses:

Vost. part of the ulus - Zap. Siberia - Art. son Jochi - Blue or White Horde;

Zap. part - Batu - Golden Horde.

In 1227, Jochi died (poisoned), then Genghis Khan (fell from a horse).

In 1236, Batu conquered the Volga Bulgaria.

There are two campaigns of Batu (the grandson of Genghis Khan) to Russia.

1 hike 1237-1238, but Russia was not yet subjugated, although a significant part of northeastern Russia was defeated. 100 miles from the city tribute.

2 hike 1239-1240 The main blow Batu brought down on the southern Russian lands: Galicia-Volyn, Kiev. Kiev, Murom, Galich, Chernigov, and others fell. In total, only Novgorod, Pskov, and the Vitebsk principality did not suffer.

Similar information.

In this video lesson, everyone will get acquainted with the topic "Political, socio-economic development of Kievan Rus." Pupils are waiting for a story about the history of the ancient Russian state, the traditions of government, economic, social and political features. In addition, the teacher will touch upon the main problems of Kievan Rus.

Theme: Ancient Russia

Lesson: Socio-economic and political system of the Old Russian state

We will talk in this lesson about the most ancient events and monuments of Ancient Russia. What is "Yaroslav's Truth"? Who are the dead? What was the social status of the rank and file in ancient Russia?

1. The problem of determining the socio-economic formation of Ancient Russia

The main reason for the existence of this problem is the actual absence of reliable written sources. The only reliable source was and remains the oldest legal code of Kievan Rus - "Russkaya Pravda", consisting of three components: "The Truth of Yaroslav the Wise" (1016/1035), "The Truth of Yaroslavichi" (1070/1072) and the "Charter Vladimir Monomakh" (1113).

In Russian historical science, the problem of determining the socio-economic formation of Ancient Russia was not given much importance. The only exception was the book by N. Pavlov-Silvansky "Feudalism in Russia", published in 1908. In Soviet historical science, on the contrary, this problem was given priority, since its methodological basis was Marxism. In 1939, during a rather heated discussion, the thesis about the slave-owning nature of Kievan Rus was rejected and B. Grekov's concept of Ancient Rus as an early feudal state triumphed. Then, in 1980-2000, a number of authors (I. Froyanov, A. Dvornichenko, P. Pyankov) sharply criticized the concept of B. Grekov, but it still remains dominant in Russian historiography. Most modern authors recognize the presence in Kievan Rus (starting from the 11th century) of three main features of feudalism:

1) the hierarchy of land ownership;

2) the institution of feudal vassalage;

3) senior regime.

2. The political system of the Old Russian state

The head of the Old Russian state was the great prince of Kiev, who at the same time was the head of the feudal hierarchy, legislator, military leader, tribute recipient and supreme judge. Such a wide range of his powers gave grounds to a number of authors (N. Karamzin) to assert that he was an autocratic monarch. However, most historians (N. Kostomarov, V. Klyuchevsky, M. Tikhomirov, A. Kuzmin) believe that the power of the Grand Prince of Kiev was significantly limited: first by the council of the tribal nobility and the people's council, and later by the senior princely retinue and the Boyar Duma. At the same time, a number of modern authors (I. Froyanov, A. Dvornichenko) generally deny the monarchical nature of the Old Russian state and argue that the main political role in pre-Mongol Rus belonged to the people's council.

The power of the Grand Prince of Kiev was hereditary and passed on ladder principle, i.e., the next in seniority to the specific prince (younger brother or older nephew). However, it must be said that this principle was often violated, and the struggle for the grand prince's throne between the specific princes of the "Rurik House" was a characteristic feature of the political system. Ancient Russia.

Rice. 3. Yaroslav's family. Part of the fresco of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev ()

The mainstay of princely power in ancient Russia was princely retinue. The question of its origin and functions still causes the most heated debate. But traditionally, this term itself served to designate a small but very influential social group in ancient Russian society. In the early stages of its existence, the princely retinue lived mainly on military campaigns, foreign trade and tribute collected from the subject population (polyudye), and then (from the middle of the 11th century) took an active part in the process of folding feudal land ownership.

The princely squad itself was divided into two parts: the older and the younger. The senior squad (gridi, ognischans, tiuns and boyars) not only participated in all military campaigns and diplomatic relations with foreign powers, but also took an active part in the management of the princely domain economy (tiuns, ognischans) and the state as princely posadniks and volostels. The younger squad (children, youths) was the prince's personal guard, which also participated in all military campaigns and carried out separate orders from the prince to manage his domain economy and state as guardians of public order, swordsmen (bailiffs), virniki (fine collectors) and etc.

According to most historians (B. Grekov, B. Rybakov, L. Cherepnin, A. Kuzmin), from the middle of the 11th century. the process of decomposition of the princely squad as a purely military organization begins and the formation of the boyar patrimonial land ownership takes place, which was formed:

1) through the grant of state land to a private inalienable possession (allod or estate);

2) either through the grant of land from the princely domain to a private, but alienable possession (flax or feud).

3. Dependent population of Ancient Russia

We can judge about the various categories of the dependent population of Ancient Rus from the same Russkaya Pravda, but since this source is clearly not enough, disputes in the assessment of the social status of various categories of the dependent population of Kievan Rus still do not stop in historical science.

a) Smerdy. B. Grekov divided all smerds into two main groups: communal smerds, independent of private owners and paying tribute only to the state, and suffering smerds, who were land dependent on feudal lords and carried feudal duties in his favor - corvée and dues. I. Froyanov argued that the smerds were divided into “internal”, that is, prisoners planted on the land of the feudal lord, and “external”, that is, conquered tribes who paid tribute (military indemnity) to the Grand Duke. V. Klyuchevsky, L. Cherepnin, B. Rybakov considered smerds to be state (princely) peasants who were in feudal dependence on the state and carried duties in the form of tribute in its favor. S. Yushkov believed that the status of a smerd was akin to the legal status of a serf in the 16th-17th centuries.

Rice. 4. The uprising of smerds in 1071 ()

b) servants (serfs). B. Grekov divided all the serfs into "whitewashed", that is, complete, who did not conduct an independent household and were the personal servants of the feudal lord, and "hiremen" - former free community members who fell into the category of slaves for debts. A. Zimin believed that the term "servants" denoted the entire dependent population of Ancient Russia, and the term "serf" - only slaves. I. Froyanov argued that the servants were captive slaves, and the serfs were slaves of local origin, etc.

Closely related to this dispute is the problem of the place of slavery in ancient Russian society. According to most historians (B. Grekov, M. Tikhomirov, A. Kuzmin), slavery in Russia existed only in the form of domestic slavery and did not play a significant role in the social division of labor. According to their opponents (I. Froyanov, P. Pyankov), slavery played a key role in Ancient Russia.

v) Ryadovichi. According to most historians (B. Grekov, M. Tikhomirov, A. Kuzmin), the dependence of the Ryadovich on the feudal lord was purely feudal in nature, since through the signing of a special agreement (series) he entered into a dependent position from the landowner and carried feudal duties in his favor.

G) Purchases. B. Grekov considered purchases of former free smerds, who, through obtaining a cash loan (kupa), fell into a dependent position from the feudal lord. A. Zimin, I. Froyanov, V. Kobrin argued that purchases were "non-whitewashed" serfs who either worked on the lord's plow or were the feudal gentry. The main difference between purchases and obelnye serfs was that they ran a personal household and could eventually, having repaid a debt, regain their freedom.

e) Outcasts. Most Soviet historians shared the point of view of B. Grekov, who considered outcasts to be former serfs planted on the land of a feudal lord, that is, serfs.

1. Gorsky A. A. Russia from the Slavic settlement to the Moscow kingdom. M., 2004

2. Grekov B. D. Kievan Rus. M., 2004

3. Danilevsky I. N. Ancient Russia through the eyes of contemporaries and descendants. M., 2001

4. Zimin A. A. Slaves in Russia from ancient times to the end of the 15th century. M., 1973

5. Kuzmin A. G. History of Russia from ancient times to 1618. M., 2003

6. Tikhomirov M. N. Ancient Russia. M., 1975

7. Sverdlov M. B. Pre-Mongol Rus. SPb., 2003

8. Stefanovich P.S. Boyars, youths, squads. The military-political elite of Russia in the X-XI centuries. M., 2012

9. Froyanov I. Ya. Beginnings of Russian history. SPb., 2005

10. Yushkov S. V. Russian Truth. Origin, sources, its significance. M., 2002

4. Dependent population of Ancient Russia ().

Agriculture of Kievan Rus X-XI centuries.

The basis of the economy was arable farming:

· in the south - by a plow, or a rake, with a double team of oxen;

· in the north - a plow with an iron plowshare, drawn by horses.

They grew mainly grain crops: rye, wheat, barley, spelt, oats. Millet, peas, lentils, and turnips were also common.

Crop rotations in Kievan Rus:

1. two-field (the entire mass of cultivated land was divided into two parts: one of them was used to grow bread, the second "rested" - was under fallow);

2. three-field (in addition to fallow and winter (sown in autumn) fields, there was also a spring field - sown in spring).

In the forest north, the amount of old arable land was not so significant, slash-and-burn agriculture remained the leading form of agriculture.

The Slavs kept a stable set of domestic animals. Bred cows, horses, sheep, pigs, goats, poultry. Crafts played a rather significant role in the economy: hunting, fishing, beekeeping. With the development of foreign trade, the demand for furs increased.

Craft of Kievan Rus X-XI centuries.

Trades and handicrafts, developing, are more and more separated from agriculture. Actually handicraft production already included more than a dozen types:

weapons,

jewelry,

blacksmith,

pottery,

weaving,

leather.

Russian craft in its technical and artistic level was not inferior to the craft of the advanced European countries. Jewelry, chain mail, blades, locks were famous.

Trade of Kievan Rus X-XI centuries.

Internal trade in the Old Russian state was poorly developed. The reason is the dominance of subsistence farming.

The expansion of foreign trade was associated with the formation of a state that ensured the security of trade routes and supported them with its authority in international markets.

In Byzantium and the countries of the East, a significant part of the tribute collected by the Russian princes was realized.

Products of crafts were exported from Russia: furs, honey, wax, products of artisans - gunsmiths and gold smiths, slaves.

Mostly luxury items were imported into Kievan Rus: grape wines, silk fabrics, fragrant resins and spices, and expensive weapons.

Craft and trade were concentrated in cities, the number of which grew. The Scandinavians who often visited Russia called our country Gardarika - the country of cities. In Russian chronicles at the beginning of the XIII century. more than 200 cities are mentioned. However, the inhabitants of the cities still retained close ties with agriculture and were engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding.

The social system of Kievan Rus X-XI centuries.

The process of formation in Kievan Rus of the main classes of feudal society is poorly reflected in the sources, so the question of the nature and class basis of the Old Russian state is debatable.

Most scientists support the idea of Academician B.D. Grekov about the feudal nature of the Old Russian state, since the development of feudal relations began from the 9th century. leading trend in the socio-economic development of ancient Russia.

The feudalism of Kievan Rus is characterized by:

full ownership of the land by the feudal lord;

· incomplete ownership of the feudal lord to the peasants, against whom he applies various forms of economic and non-economic coercion.

The dependent peasant cultivates not only the land of the feudal lord, but also his own plot of land, which he received from the feudal lord or the feudal state, and is the owner of tools, housing, etc.

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1. people or smerds - free peasants, dependent only on the state and the Grand Duke ;

2. purchases - people who received from the landowner kupu- assistance in the form of a plot of land, a cash loan, seeds, tools or draft power and an obligation to return or work out kupu with interest;

3. ryadovichi - people who have concluded a certain agreement with the feudal lord - row and obliged to perform various works according to this row;

4. serfs or servants - slaves, first of all, captives, but temporary debt servitude, which ceased after payment of the debt, became widespread. Kholops were commonly used as household servants. In some estates there were also so-called plowed serfs, planted on the ground and having their own farm.

The main social unit of the agricultural population continued to be the neighboring community - verv. It could consist of one large village or several small settlements. The members of the vervi were bound by collective responsibility for paying tribute, for crimes committed on the territory of the vervi, by mutual responsibility. The community (vervi) included not only smerds-farmers, but also smerds-artisans (blacksmiths, potters, tanners), who provided the needs of the community in handicrafts and worked mainly to order.

A person who broke ties with the community and did not enjoy its patronage was called an outcast. .

Estate in Kievan Rus X-XI centuries.

The patrimony is the main cell of the feudal economy, which included:

a princely or boyar estate and

Vervei communities dependent on it.

In the estate there was a yard and mansions of the owner, bins and barns with "abundance", i.e. stores, servants' dwellings and other buildings.

Special managers were in charge of various sectors of the economy - tiunas and key keeper, at the head of the entire patrimonial administration was fireman.

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The spread of economic dependence, increased exploitation caused resistance from the dependent population. The most common form was the escape of dependent people. This is also evidenced by the severity of the punishment provided for such an escape - turning into a complete, "whitewashed" serf. Data on various manifestations of the class struggle are contained in Russkaya Pravda. It refers to violations of the boundaries of land holdings, arson of side trees, murders of representatives of the patrimonial administration, and theft of property.

The heyday of the Old Russian state

In the reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich (980-1015). the East Slavic lands on both sides of the Carpathians, the land of the Vyatichi, were annexed to the Old Russian state. The line of fortresses created in the south of the country provided more effective protection of the country from the Pecheneg nomads.

Vladimir sought not only the political unification of the East Slavic lands. He wanted to reinforce this association with religious unity, unifying the traditional pagan beliefs.

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The long and strong ties between Russia and Byzantium ultimately led to the fact that in 988 Vladimir adopted Christianity in its Orthodox version. The adoption of Christianity equalized Kievan Rus with neighboring states, had a huge impact on the life and customs of Ancient Russia, political and legal relations.

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In order to strengthen his power in various parts of the vast state, Vladimir appointed his sons as governors in various cities and lands of Russia. After the death of Vladimir, a fierce struggle for power began between his sons.

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As a result of this strife, the state was ultimately divided into two parts:

the area east of the Dnieper passed to Mstislav Tmutarakansky,

The territory west of the Dnieper remained with Yaroslav Vladimirovich, the Grand Duke of Kiev (1019-1054).

After the death of Mstislav in 1035, Yaroslav (later - the Wise) became the sovereign prince of Kievan Rus.

The time of Yaroslav the Wise is the heyday of Kievan Rus, which has become one of the strongest states in Europe. The most powerful sovereigns at that time sought an alliance with Russia.

7. Features of the state-political structure and its impact on development
Kievan Rus

State structure of Kievan Rus. Prince and princely council. In the IX-X centuries. the most important formal and legal sign of the early feudal monarchy was formed - the hereditary transfer of the table.

three successive periods can be distinguished: - the period of emergence, and formation, and ... IX - the end of the X century; - the period of the greatest rise and development of Kievan Rus (the end of the 10th - the middle of the 11th century) - the period of political fragmentation of Kiev ..

№ 8 Feudal fragmentation in Russia: causes, essence, stages and consequences.

Positive: along with Kiev, new centers of crafts and trade appeared, increasingly independent of the capital of the Russian state, old cities developed, large and strong principalities formed, strong princely dynasties were created in large Russian principalities, a tradition of transferring power from father to son was taking shape, there was a stormy the growth of cities, there was a steady development of the peasant economy, new arable land and forest land were developed. Wonderful cultural monuments were created there. The Russian Orthodox Church was gaining strength there. Negative (which, unfortunately, are more tangible than positive ones): the state became vulnerable, since not all the principalities that formed were on good terms with each other, and there was no unity that later saved the country more than once, constant bloody civil strife weakened the military and the economic power of the country, Kiev - the former capital of the Old Russian state - lost its power sung in legends and epics and itself became the cause of contention, many princes sought to take the grand prince's table in Kiev. The power in the city often changed - some princes were expelled, others died in battles, others left, unable to resist new applicants. What about the reasons ... Formal: the Polovtsian danger significantly reduced the attractiveness of the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks." The centers through which trade relations between Europe and the East were carried out, thanks to the Crusades, are gradually moving to Southern Europe and the Mediterranean, and control over this trade is established by the rapidly growing northern Italian cities, the pressure of the steppe nomads. Genuine: political prerequisites: endless inter-princely feuds and a long bitter internecine struggle among the Rurikovichs, the strengthening of local princes, the boyars turn into feudal landowners, for whom the income received from the estates becomes the main means of subsistence. And one more thing: the decline of the Kiev principality (the loss of a central position, the movement of world trade routes away from Kiev), was associated with the loss of the importance of the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", Ancient Russia is losing the role of a participant and mediator in trade relations between Byzantine, Western European and Eastern the world.

Feudal fragmentation in Russia was from the beginning of the XII to the end of the XY centuries. (350 years).

Economic reasons:

1. Successes of agriculture

2. The growth of cities as centers of crafts and trade, as centers of individual territories. Craft development. More than 60 craft specialties. 3. Subsistence economy dominated.

Political reasons:

1. The desire to transfer wealth to the son. "Fatherland" - the legacy of the father.

3. Immunities are formed. The Kiev prince transfers a number of rights to the vassals: the right to judge, the right to collect taxes.

4. Tribute turns into a feud. rent. Tribute - to the prince for protection, rent - to the owner of the land.

5. The feudal lords create a squad on the ground, their own apparatus of power.

6. There is an increase in the power of the department. feudal lords and they do not want to obey Kiev.

7. K ser. XII century. loses its value of the trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” -> “amber route”.8.

The principality of Kiev itself fell into decline due to the raids of the nomadic Polovtsy. V. Monomakh (1113-1125) slowed down the process of the country's disintegration a little. He was the grandson of the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh. V. Monomakh became a prince at the age of 60. His son Mstislav the Great (1125-1132) managed to continue his father's policy and maintain what had been achieved. But immediately after his death, the division of Russia begins. At the beginning of the feud. fragmentation, there were 15 large and small principalities, and in the beginning. 19th century already was the peak of the feud. fragmentation - » 250 principalities. There were 3 centers: Vladimir-Suzdal kn-in, Galicia-Volyn kn-in and Novgorod feud. republic.

Ancient Russia is the Great Tartaria. Part of the Great Tartaria were - Muscovy, Yugoria, Lukomorye, Europe, Crimea, etc. The Horde is the army of the Great Tartaria, which means: OR-strength, D-good, A-as, together: The power of good aces. Ases are the people of Rus.
The name Rus means: The tribal structure of the country.
The name Russia means: Russia This is Russia.

10. The struggle of northwestern Russia against German and Swedish aggression in the 13th century.

In the XI-XIII centuries. The ancient Russian state was a zone of interaction between the civilizations of the West and the East, Russia played an outstanding role in the fate of Europe of its time: it repelled the onslaught of the Pechenegs, Polovtsy, Mongols, becoming a shield that shielded Europe from the nomads! She participated in the repulse of aggression from the West by the Slavic and Baltic peoples, defeated the six-power crusade against the Baltic states and Russia, thereby changing the balance of power in Europe. After the official separation of the Orthodox and Catholic Churches (1054), the papacy tried to convert Russia to the Catholic faith. In the fourth crusade (1203-1204), one of the arenas of struggle was the Baltic. The German knights of the Order of the Sword landed on the river. Western Dvina, founded Riga (1201), which became their stronghold for further conquests. The knights of the Teutonic Order also arrived here, who united with the swordsmen. Formed in this way in 1237, the spiritual and knightly Livonian Order was named after the lands of the Livs captured by him. The city of Revel (Tallinn) was founded on the lands of the Finno-Ugric tribe of Estonians. From the 40s. 13th century the organization of crusades against Russia by the papacy begins. The feudally fragmented Scandinavian countries as a whole gravitated towards an alliance with strong Russia, but contradictions began to appear between them on the issue of counter colonization of the lands of Lapland, Finland and Karelia, especially since 1136, when Novgorod entered into a confrontation with Sweden and Denmark. Taking advantage of the advance of the crusaders and the appearance of a formidable rival in the face of the Mongols in the south of Russia, the Swedish troops, led by Duke Birger, launched an attack on Novgorod and landed on the Neva. In 1240, the Novgorodians, led by Prince Alexander Yaroslavich, won a complete victory over the Swedish feudal lords. Prince Alexander was nicknamed Nevsky for this, and later on the site of the Battle of the Neva, Peter I founded the Alexander Nevsky Monastery. Swedish aggression to the east was suspended, and Russia retained access to the Baltic coast. In the same 1240, the Livonian Order invaded the territory of Russia and captured the cities of Izborsk and Pskov, coming close to Novgorod. Prince Alexander Nevsky with his retinue and the Novgorod militia, enlisting the support of the Horde, liberated the captured cities with a calculated blow and met with the main forces of the order. He showed himself to be an outstanding commander, subordinating the course of the battle to his strategic plan. On April 5, 1242, on the ice of Lake Peipus, he won a brilliant victory in a battle called the Battle of the Ice. The power of the Livonian Order was weakened, and the attempt to impose Catholicism on Russia was unsuccessful. The German knights abandoned further conquests and concluded a peace treaty with Novgorod. For the possession of the city of Yuryev (Derpt, modern Tartu), the Order paid Novgorod, and from the end of the 15th century. - To the Moscow state "tribute to Yuriev". Nevertheless, the Livonian Order managed to subjugate a considerable part of the Baltic lands to its dominance for a considerable period of time. A century and a half later, in 1410, in the Battle of Grunwald (northern Poland), joint Polish, Lithuanian and Russian (Smolensk) regiments forever put an end to the aggression of the crusaders to the east.

Catherine's domestic politics 2

1763 Reform of the Senate. The Senate is divided into 6 departments headed by chief prosecutors. The head of the Senate is the Prosecutor General.
- 1764 - Liquidation of the hetmanship in Ukraine. Secularization of church lands was carried out
- 1767-1768 - An attempt was made to convene a legislative Commission of 565 deputies, in which all segments of the population were represented, except for the serfs. The main goal is to find out the people's needs for reform
- 1775 - Liquidation of the Zaporozhian Sich.
- 1783 - Creation of free printing houses is allowed.
- 1786 - The beginning of the school reform.
The reign of Catherine II is called the era of "enlightened absolutism". The meaning of "enlightened absolutism" is the policy of following the ideas of the Enlightenment, expressed in the implementation of reforms that destroyed some of the most outdated feudal institutions. The policy of Catherine II in its class orientation was noble.